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A Review of Nonbite Transmission of Rabies Virus Infection

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Rabies Virus Infection in Livestock

Submitted: March 22nd, 2021 Reviewed: May tertiary, 2021 Published: June ninth, 2021

DOI: x.5772/intechopen.98228

From the Edited Volume

Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century [Working Title]

Dr. Sergey Tkachev

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Abstract

Rabies is a lethal zoonotic encephalomyelitis and a major challenge to public and animal health. Livestock are affected by rabies mostly through bites of rapid dogs or wildlife carnivore\'s species. They are considered as 'expressionless-finish' hosts that do non transmit the virus. Rabies in livestock has been endemic in many developing countries for many years and diagnosed through clinical signs and dog-bitter history. An introduction on rabies state of affairs in farm animals will be given then subchapters including `rabies in bovines, rabies in small-scale ruminants, rabies in swine and rabies in camelids. In each subchapter we shall discuss, epidemiology, modes of transmission, diagnosis and prevention and control measures.

Keywords

  • rabies
  • old globe camelids
  • new world camelids
  • epidemiology
  • diagnosis
  • spread

1. Introduction

Rabies is the oldest known zoonotic fatal viral affliction that affects only warm-blooded mammals. The rabies virus (RABV) infects the central nervous system transmitted through direct contact (such as through cleaved skin or mucous membranes in the eyes, olfactory organ, or oral cavity) with saliva or encephalon/nervous system tissue by an infected beast.

RABV almost exclusively infects neurons and somewhen causing illness in the brain and death. The virus particle binds cell-surface receptors and follows the endosomal pathway. The virus'southward life cycle then advances, and following several days or months, the virus enters the peripheral nerves (Effigy 1). Information technology is and then transported to the central nervous system by retrograde flow in the axons [1].

Figure ane.

Pathogenesis and spread of rabies virus in animals from the seize with teeth site to the central nervous system.

People usually get rabies from the seize with teeth of a rabid fauna. Around 99% of human cases of rabies are due to dog bites or rarely from non-bite exposures, which include scratches, abrasions, or open wounds. RABV tin can infect any mammal. However, fauna species reported to exist involved in the transmission of rabies to domestic subcontract animals are dogs, foxes, wolves, jackals, and vampire bats (Effigy two).

Figure 2.

Rabies virus manual wheel in bats, terrestrial animals, and livestock.

The species of livestock and the carnivores that transmit RABV to them vary from geographical area to another. For case, according to Kasem et al. (2019), camels, sheep and goats are the near affected species among farm animals by rabies (21.5%, 16.five%, and xvi.5%, respectively) and foxes and wolves (11.4% and 2.5%, respectively) are the nigh common wild fauna infected with rabies in Saudi arabia (Figure 3). Table 1 evidence reported animal rabies cases according to the reviewed articles in some Asian, African, European, and Latin American countries.

Figure 3.

Suspected and confirmed cases of rabies in animals in Kingdom of saudi arabia recorded between 2010 and 2017 (modified from Table i in Kasem et al. [15].

Country Animal species Reference
Dog Cattle Goat Sheep Equidae Camel Pig Play tricks
Bangladesh x i one (Horse) Uddin et al. [2]
384 290 355 Islam et al. [iii]
Republic of india ane Kumar and Jindal [iv]
3 Preethi et al. [5]
Sri-Lanka 6788 915 233 13 Pushpakumara et al. [6]
China 20 Jiang et al. [7]
21 15 Liu et al. [eight]
36 Zhu et al. [nine]
Nepal 374 442 122 60 fourteen (Horses) 21 Devleesschauwer et al. (2016)
Iran 6 Simani et al. [10]
12 Mohammadpour et al. [xi]
Jordan viii Al-Rawashdeh et al. [12]
Oman two 312* 40 47 Al-Abaidani et al. (2015)
22 Ahmed et al. [13]
Republic of indonesia (Bali) 7114 8 i 1 Putra [xiv]
Saudi Arabia 34 26 26 34 18 Kasem et al. [15]
Uganda 15 6 4 ane Omodo et al. [16]
Sudan 83 Ali et al. (2004)
1158 172 501 82 33(Horses), 467 (Donkeys) 79 Ali, et al. [17]
708 76 184 111 12 (Horses), 277 (Donkeys) 60 Ali, et al. (2009)
64 53 34 28 26 (Horses) 11 Baraa et al. [xviii],
5 Abbas and Omer [nineteen],
i 1 half-dozen Ahmed et al. [20],
iv 1 1 four (Donkeys) Ali [21]
Ethiopia 1951 Nibret [22]
1434 Reta, et al. [23]
1724 37 13 (Horses), 19 Donkey Oyda and Megersa [24]
28 12 5 3 (Horses) Mulugeta et al. [25]
Republic of kenya 2796 1192 280 (sheep & goat) 113 ane 17 Bitek et al. [26]
Morocco 2458 2390 331(sheep & goat) 1455 (Horses) 9 Darkaoui et al. [27]
Algeria 667 98 Matter et al. (2015)
Nigeria one Kaltungo et al. (2018)
1 Ibrahim et al. [28]
five 1 1 Tekki et al. [29]
Sierra Leone ix Suluku et al. [thirty]
Ghana iii Tasiame et al. (2016)
Namibia 644 592 131 Hikufe et al. (2019)
U.s. 62 36 xi* 13 (Horses) 314 Xiaoyue et al. (2018)
Brazil ii Pessoa et al. [31]
6 Moreira et al. [32]
Mexico 1037 Bárcenas-Reyes et al. [33]
Guatemala 154 Gilbert et al. [34]
Russia 3731 6740 4347 Botvinkin and Kosenko [35]
Belarus 215 129 734 Botvinkin and Kosenko [35]
Latvia 566 2281 Westerling et al. [36]
Lithuania 183 638 802 Westerling et al. [36]
Estonia 131 81 566 Westerling et al. [36]
Ukraine 78 7 1 2 226 Polupan et al. [37]

Table ane.

Reported brute rabies cases according to the reviewed articles in some Asian, African, European, and Latin American countries.

The circulation of rabies virus among livestock has extraordinarily influenced endeavors to control the disease in humans as these animals are in regular contact with individuals. Additionally, affected livestock pose a potential hazard to veterinarians and farmers, which underline the importance of applying rabies control measures to humans [15]. Rabies is a transmissible disease amidst animals causing economic losses directly or indirectly on the local and national economy. Due to their total reliance on livestock for their livelihoods, the losses due to rabies are relatively loftier for pastoral peoples in rural areas of the earth due to their full dependence on livestock. Nevertheless, rabies in livestock remains underreported in developing countries because most of these countries lack adequate and efficient reporting systems and only clinical diagnosis is attainable.

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two. Economic impact of rabies in livestock

Hampson et al. [38] estimated the economical costs of canine rabies to exist 8.six billion USD, mainly due to loss of productivity due to premature deaths, costs of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), and income loss for seeking PEP. Costs of Livestock deaths were 512 one thousand thousand USD per year, especially in livestock-dependent African economies (e.g., Sudan, Federal democratic republic of ethiopia, and Tanzania) and Asia (China, Republic of india, Bangladesh, and Pakistan). In Bhutan, rabies results in loss of cattle and their production, thus causing direct economic losses to the farmers besides a cost to the regime due to managing outbreaks and provision of mass rabies PEP [39]. Virtually rabies man deaths were in Asia and Africa. Estimated rabies human deaths worldwide annually are 55,000, about 31,000 in Asia and 24,000 in Africa. In Bangladesh, dogs flake nearly 100,000 people, with at to the lowest degree ii,000 rabies deaths in 2009 [forty].

Besides its public health significance, the occurrence of rabies in domestic animals (cattle, sheep, and goats), which are the source of food and income to the poor rural people, had raised its economical importance. The authors reviewed a study stating that the incidence of rabies in livestock is re-emerging disease reported in rabies endemic and gratuitous countries [29].

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3. Laboratory diagnosis of rabies in livestock

During the eclipse stage after infection, the rabies virus replicates in non-nervous tissue such as muscle. Afterwards several days or months, the virus enters the peripheral nerves and is transported to the fundamental nervous system and and so disseminated within the CNS and the highly innervated tissues, resulting in clinical signs. Nigh of the virus is found in nervous tissue, salivary glands, saliva, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which should all be handled with extreme caution. As there are neither gross pathognomonic lesions nor specific and abiding clinical signs for rabies, confirmatory laboratory diagnosis must be performed [41]. Laboratory diagnosis of rabies is based on the direct detection of rabies viral antigen using different histopathological and serological techniques with the dominance of fluorescent antibody test (FAT) (Figure iv). RABV infection induces the germination of cytosolic protein aggregates called Negri Bodies (NBs) detected past histopathology. However, this examination is no longer recommended for diagnosis [41]. Brain samples are tested using the rapid immuno-chromatographic and direct Fluorescent Antibody assay in Nigeria [28, 29]. In China, Fat and RT/PCR are used for diagnosing rabies [viii]. Existent-time PCR is used every bit well in unlike laboratories [30]. Diagnosis of rabies is performed in Federal democratic republic of ethiopia by brute inoculation, cell cultures, serological tests, histological examination, molecular methods, and immunohistochemistry [42].

Effigy 4.

Straight fluorescent antibiotic exam (dFA), brain impression smears (source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)).

In Iran, laboratory diagnosis of rabies is practiced using different techniques, antigen in saliva using mouse inoculation test (MIT), fluorescence antibody test (FAT) and rapid tissue cell inoculation test (RTCIT). Antibodies against rabies in serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) using mouse neutralization examination (MNT) [10].

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4. Prevention and command measures

It is important to call back that in developed countries, where canine rabies is eliminated, the virus may circulate in wildlife. In contrast, in most developing countries, the principal reservoir is dogs. The major rabies command strategies are vaccination of susceptible animals, mainly dogs and cats, elimination or control of stray dogs, and pre- and post-exposure vaccination of humans at risk. For rabies vaccination in animals, inactivated virus (for companion animals and livestock), alive attenuated virus (for wildlife and gratuitous-roaming dogs), or recombinant vaccines (for wild animals, cats, and dogs) are used [41]. In China, local rabies vaccines have been used for emergency immunization of beef and dairy cattle and Bactrian (two-humped) camels [8]. In Ukraine, vaccination of domestic dogs and cats, as well oral vaccination of wild animals, mainly foxes, is adopted to control rabies [37]. In Latin America, due to attacks of bats, rabies is a meaning problem, especially in cattle; many countries tend to vaccinate cattle only with an inadequate response from owners. In Guatemala, cattle vaccination coverage was estimated to exist xi% [34]. In Latin America (eastward.m., Guatemala), vampire bat control activities (poisoning or culling) are used to control rabies in cattle, also vaccination of cattle, although it is non widely used due to high cost [34]. In Morocco, free annual rabies vaccination campaigns for dogs are proficient; nevertheless, but around six% vaccination coverage rate is accomplished. Elimination of devious dogs is washed by shooting or using strychnine poisonous substance [43]. In Algeria, a mean of 131 positive domestic dog rabies cases were reported annually; this is considered extremely high compared to neighboring Tunisia and Morocco. Elimination of stray dogs and vaccination of canines are the master control measures adopted [44].

Vaccination of livestock in affected areas was implemented in 2012 in Bela Vista city, Arkansas state, United states, where a rabies outbreak was reported. More than 200 cattle were vaccinated with two doses of the vaccine to prevent the disease in bovine, equine, goat, and sheep (reviewed by [29]).

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v. Rabies in cattle

Cattle, similar other warm-blooded animals, are susceptible to rabies infection. The incidence of rabies in cattle is variable according to the management system.

5.1 Epidemiology

The incidence of rabies in cattle is continuously reported worldwide. In India and Bangladesh, cattle were establish to be the most affected domestic animals with rabies [two]. Cattle were the first most likely livestock tested positive for rabies in Mongolia [45]. Rabies was considered one of the most common infectious diseases affecting cattle and is near reported in cattle in Bhutan [39]. In Sri Lanka, cattle were the second most clinically diagnosed species with rabies during 2005–2014 [6]. In China, during 2004–2018, results of a rabies survey showed that cattle were the second virtually (12.v%) affected species according to rabies laboratory-confirmed cases [46]. In Republic of india, rabies' prevalence was 61.iv% in cattle and buffalo [47]. In Nepal, cattle and buffalo appeared to exist the most affected species even than dogs [48]. Co-ordinate to Bárcenas-Reyes et al. (2019), there is an increase in rabies cases in humans and cattle in Latin America and the Caribbean area. Taghreed and Asmaa [49] reviewed some published rabies reports in Sultanate of oman, Kingdom of saudi arabia, Egypt, People's democratic republic of algeria, Republic of iraq, and Yemen. Dogs were the main rabies reservoir, and the disease was found in camels, foxes, cattle, sheep, and goats. Dogs, cattle, and humans are the almost common hosts for rabies in Federal democratic republic of ethiopia. Cattle come second to dogs [24]. Out of 48 beast deaths of rabies, cattle (28) were more affected than other animate being species [25]. The same pic was reported in Nigeria [29]. In Republic of kenya, cattle were found to be the 2nd near rabies-affected species.

Within samples submitted for rabies diagnosis, those of cattle, goats, sheep, and horses showed a higher percentage of positivity than dog and cat ones [26]. In Namibia, cattle rabies cases are 2d to dogs during 2011–2017 [fifty], as well in Uganda during 2011–2013 [xvi]. In South Africa, rabies has been mainly diagnosed in dogs (52%), followed past (34%) cattle [51]. In a review about rabies in Morocco, nigh of the reviewed reports showed that cattle were found to be the 2nd most afflicted animal after dogs [27, 52].

In Euro-Asia and Europe, until 2001, cattle were the outset rabies affected species in the Russia, second in Belarus [35], the first one in Republic of lithuania, the second one in Latvia, and the third after dogs and cats in Estonia [36]. In Republic of guatemala, 154 cattle rabies due to vampire bat bites were reported (reviewed by [34]). In the Us, Canada, and Mexico, few cases were reported in cattle [53]. The same situation showing a very few reported rabies cases in cattle in Ukraine during 2012–2016 was reported [37].

5.2 Clinical signs

The paralytic form of rabies is the main sign in cattle, but some animals also show depression and excitation [54]. Foaming, bellowing, hitting and bitter any object, hazing at humans and other cows were reported in Sierra Leone [30]. In Peru, abortive rabies cases were reported, rabies virus neutralizing antibodies were detected in eleven% of cattle in areas of vampire bats, no deaths were observed in those animals within two years [55]. The observed clinical signs of rabies in cattle in two localities in India and Bangladesh were aggression, mania, profuse salivation, frenzy, and restlessness [two].

5.iii Transmission

Rabies virus is transmitted mainly through bites from rabid dogs, which accounts for over xc% of confirmed rabies cases [29]. However, according to Acha [56], rabies affecting bovines is primarily a problem of the southern area of the Hemisphere where vampire bats transmit it. In Africa, domestic dogs are the essential reservoir and transmitter of rabies to humans and other domestic animals [22, 57]. However, according to Warrell [58], jackals are the reservoir species in Republic of botswana, Namibia, Zimbabwe, and bat-eared foxes in northern South Africa.

Rabies is transmitted to cattle mainly past the bite of rabid dogs in Kingdom of bhutan [39]. In China, dogs are the primary transmitters, while in border areas, wild foxes are [46]; camels and wild foxes were reported to transmit rabies to cattle [8]. In Saudi Arabia, the primary reservoirs of rabies are reported to be foxes and wild dogs [fifteen].

In Europe, the increase in rabies cases in domestic animals like cattle, sheep, horses, cats, and dogs is associated with increased affliction incidence in red foxes. Wild animals are reported every bit a cause for more than than ninety% of the animal rabies cases in the U.Southward. and Canada in 2010 [59]. Foxes are the main affected animals and the source of rabies infection in Ukraine [37]. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the chief transmitter of rabies is the blood-sucking bat [33, 54]. In Colombia, the major transmitters, reservoirs, and vectors of the rabies are insectivorous, frugivorous and hematophagous bats; Vampire bat, which appeared as the primary rabies reservoir from Mexico to South America [sixty].

Cattle can transmit rabies to humans too as other animals. In Iran, a case of human rabies due to contact with the saliva of rabid cattle was reported [10].

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six. Rabies in goats

6.ane Epidemiology

In Ethiopia, of 48 animal deaths of rabies, 12 were goats which were the 2nd more affected fauna species [25]. In Sudan, a review on rabies showed that goats were the most rabies-afflicted species after dogs, as clear from previous reports [17, 18, 61, 62]. In Kenya, the third well-nigh rabies-affected species were sheep and goats [26]. The same situation was reported in Morocco [27] and Namibia [l]. In South Africa, rabies-diagnosed cases in goats were the tertiary-highest figures afterwards dogs and cattle [51]. The same situation was reported in Republic of uganda during 2011–2013 [xvi].

Reported dog bite in goats was higher than in cattle in Bangladesh [3]. The reported prevalence of rabies in goats in Bharat was 48.7% [47]. Sheep and goats showed the 3rd-highest positivity reported for rabies diagnosis in Sultanate of oman [63]. In Saudi arabia during 2010–2017, confirmed rabies cases in goats were the third-highest number following dogs and camels [15]. In Sri Lanka, goats were the third nearly species that clinically rabies diagnosed during 2005–2014 [6]. In Nepal, goats were the fourth nearly affected species [48]. However, Uddin et al. (2015) reported that goats showed a low level of rabies prevalence (0.v%) in Bangladesh.

Compared to other species, a depression number of cases were reported in goats in United states, Canada, and Mexico [53]. A very few rabies cases in goats in Ukraine were reported during 2012–2016 [37]. Rabies virus neutralizing antibodies were detected in five% of goats in areas of vampire bats in Peru, seropositive animals remained healthy for farther two years suggesting abortive rabies infection [55].

Figure 5.

Rabid Saanen buck presenting depression, somnolence and abnormal standing position (source: [32]).

6.2 Clinical signs

Uddin et al. (2015) reported that in Bangladesh, profuse salivation and restlessness were the just observed clinical signs of rabies in goats. The authors reviewed other reports describing salivation (16%) and restlessness (three%), others reporting 100% for salivation, behavioral change, or mania, 70% for assailment or hyperesthesia. In Nigeria, Restlessness, agitation, and aggression were observed in rabies-affected goats [29]. A paralytic form of rabies was reported in goats in Brazil [54]. The aforementioned motion picture was reported in Brazil, where six goats bitten by bats showed aloofness, isolation from the herd, sternal and lateral recumbency. Previously reported clinical signs showed that the furious form of rabies is more commonly appears in goats, aggressiveness occurs in 83%, excessive bleating in 72%, salivation in 29%, and paralysis in 17% of cases (Effigy 5) [32]. In Nigeria, a example of rabies in goat was presented with nibbling on the metal argue, foamy salivation, excessive bloating, and disability to eat or drink [64].

half dozen.3 Transmission

Dogs are the primary rabies transmitter to goats; rabies reservoirs are variable in different countries. Canine rabies is dominant in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America, where bats play an increasing part in the latter. In Due north America and Europe, canine rabies has been greatly eliminated; rabies is maintained in wild fauna, every bit reviewed by Tilahun et al. [65]. In Bali, dogs are the primary source of rabies infection to man and domestic animals [14]. Near reported rabies cases in goats were due to dog attacks, specially in African and Asian countries [3, xvi, 18, 21, 47]. Sheep and goats accounted for a meager percentage as a source of rabies infection for humans in Ethiopia [23].

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seven. Rabies in sheep

seven.1 Epidemiology

In Kenya, sheep and goats were the 3rd most rabies-affected species [26]. The same situation was reported in Kingdom of morocco [27] and Namibia [50]. In Southward Africa, rabies diagnosed in sheep were the fourth-highest figures later dogs, cattle, and goats [51]. In Oman, sheep and goats showed the 3rd-highest positivity reported for rabies diagnosis [63]. During 2004–2018 in Prc, it was noticed that sheep were the third most (nine.vii%) affected species [46]. Confirmed rabies in sheep was the third-highest number following dogs and camels in Kingdom of saudi arabia during 2010–2017 [fifteen]. Within the affected species, a low number of cases was reported in sheep in United States, Canada, and Mexico [53].

vii.two Clinical signs

In sheep, attacking people and other animals besides other abnormal behavior was seen in Nigeria [29]. In Nigeria, observed clinical signs in a rabid ewe were aggressiveness, restlessness, corneal opacity, muscular tremor, hydrophobia, and salivation [57]. In an outbreak of rabies in sheep in Mainland china, clinical signs observed were arched back, tremors, and a pond move of all iv limbs, followed by paralysis and death [9]. A paralytic form of rabies was reported in sheep in Brazil [54]. In another report in Brazil, clinical signs observed were abnormal gait, trembling, lateral recumbency, earthquake, opisthotonos, and fever [66]. Abortive rabies cases were reported in sheep in Peru, rabies virus neutralizing antibodies were detected in 3.half dozen% of sheep that were healthy for two years later [55].

7.iii Transmission

The main transmitter of rabies to sheep is dogs. In Africa, the source of virtually rabies reported cases in sheep was the domestic dog [29, 57, 62]. In China, dogs are the primary rabies transmitters, while in border areas, wild foxes are [46]; wild foxes were reported to transmit rabies to sheep [8]. An increment in rabies cases in sheep is associated with a rise in the disease incidence in blood-red foxes in Europe [59]. Rabies transmission from sheep to homo was reported; three patients got rabies from direct contact with their sheep which a wolf had attacked in Iran [x].

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8. Rabies in camelids

8.ane Epidemiology

Camelids are susceptible to rabies. However, most of the publications described clinical rabies in dromedary camels ( Camelus dromedarius ), with few reports in Bactrian camels ( Camelus bactrianus ) [viii, 46] and the New Earth camelids [67]. From 2006 to 2013 in Oman, foxes reported the highest positivity rate (70.1%), camels deemed for the second higher positivity (59.seven%) for rabies diagnosis [63]. Camels were the second well-nigh likely livestock later cattle to examination positive for rabies in Mongolia from 1970 to 2005 [45]. Camels were the fourth (4.2%) mainly rabies tested positive animals during 2004–2018 in Communist china [46]. In People's republic of china, rabies infection in camels was reported [8]. According to the confirmed rabies cases in Kingdom of saudi arabia during 2010–2017 [xv], Dogs and dromedary camels were the almost affected species. In Islamic republic of iran, a review on zoonotic diseases published articles [11] revealed that camels are 1 of the essential sources as well every bit carriers of infection for humans, livestock, and wildlife in Iran and worldwide. Rabies is highly owned in Iran; it is circulated easily in wildlife and livestock. The authors reviewed reported camel rabies cases in Iran, three cases during 1996–2006; an outbreak of camel rabies was reported for the start fourth dimension in 2008 in central Iran. A rabid wolf attacked 8 camels; some other camel rabies in the due east was reported in 2012 [11]. In Hashemite kingdom of jordan, Rabies in viii camels was described [12]. In India, a written report of clinical signs of rabies in she-camel was described [iv].

Reports of rabies in dromedary camels from Morocco, Islamic republic of mauritania, Sudan, Republic of yemen, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Niger, Jordan, India, Israel, and Iran were reviewed by Abbas and Omer [nineteen]. Ali et al. (2004) reviewed dromedary camel rabies in Sudan; the commencement confirmed rabies cases were in 1926, then laboratory-confirmed cases continued to be reported, 17 cases from 1927 to 1939, 21 from 1940 to 1970. Other cases were reported in different parts of the country, 21 in the north and sixteen in the Western States. Camel population in Sudan is about iv.8 million; the reported rabies cases are very few compared to the population, which is mainly due to nether-reporting. Other cases in camels were reported as well in Sudan [20].

In a review well-nigh camel diseases, many rabies cases have been reported in Mauritania, Saudi arabia, Iran, and Pakistan; infection is ordinarily due to rabid domestic dog bites [68]. In Niger, an outbreak of rabies in the camel herd due to feral dog bites was reported [69].

Rabies outbreak in camels in Iran was described [70]. An outbreak of canis familiaris rabies in the camel herd was reported in Sudan in 1998, and information technology resulted in the death of 19 camels [71]. Antibodies confronting rabies were detected in non-vaccinated camels imported for slaughtering in Nigeria, which may indicate subclinical rabies infection [72]. Very few suspected rabies cases in camels were reported in Morocco during 1991–2015 [27].

8.two Clinical signs

Camels with furious rabies class show restlessness, anxiety, salivation, and attacking and biting grade followed past concluding paralysis, lateral recumbency (Figure 6) and a feature flexion of iv limbs, reviewed by Abbas and Omer [19]. Mohammadpour et al. (2020) reviewed a written report stating that a furious course of rabies is seen in near of cases in camels.

Figure 6.

A instance of rabies in a dromedary camel showing lateral recumbency and excessive salivation.

Rabies clinical signs observed in Bactrian camels were reduced appetite, excessive activity and agitation, cessation of rumination, lip twitching, hypersalivation, tachypnea and howling, paralysis [8]. Some reports described the occurrence of rabies dumb grade more than frequently. Most rabies cases (67%) in camels in Oman were of the impaired course; observed clinical signs were restlessness, salivation, head and neck rotation in all directions, paralysis, recumbency, and expiry [73]. Clinical signs seen in rabid camels were hyperesthesia, profuse salivation, anorexia, and paralysis [12]. In India, clinical signs of rabies in the camel described the appearance of hyperexcitability, bellowing, aimless running, salivation, convulsions, swaying of the hindquarters and recumbency, biting trend to the owner and wooden objects [4]. Noticed rabies clinical signs in camels were unusual behavior including assailment, pica, ptyalism, and concluding paralysis [69]. During an outbreak of rabies in camels, reported clinical signs were high sensitivity, ferocity, biting faces of other camels, bloat, restlessness, limb paralysis, and yawning [70]. In a rabies outbreak, clinical signs noticed in most of the affected camels were restlessness, irritability with very harsh and loud sounds. Later excitement became noticeable. There were then rubbing incoordination (staggering gait), tenesmus, abnormal sexual beliefs: (she-camels mounting each other), raising of tails, and slight salivation, terminated by paralysis of the hindquarter, recumbency, and death of 19 camels [71]. In Khartoum, two camel rabies cases in 1996, 1997 showed off nutrient, salivation, nervous signs followed past biting fence and their forelimbs and abdomen, then recumbency, hind limbs paralysis, and death [74]. An virtually similar picture was previously reported by Afzal et al. [75], which were hyper-excitability, salivation, attacking inanimate objects, biting of its forelimbs, sternal recumbency, paralysis of hind legs, and death.

8.iii Transmission

Transmission of rabies to camels is mainly through dog bites, except in some countries where wild animals like foxes and wolves are involved. In China, the main rabies transmitters are dogs; meanwhile, in edge areas, the wild play a trick on is [46]; camels were reported to be rabies-infected past dogs and wild foxes [8]. In Islamic republic of iran, a rabid wolf was reported to transmit the infection to camels [11]. In Sultanate of oman, the principal animals involved in rabies manual are foxes [63]. In another study in Oman, it was noticed that most rabid camels were bitten by foxes, which confirmed the major role of foxes in rabies transmission [13]. In Saudi Arabia, the majority (70%) of camel rabies cases were due to wild dog bite, while wild foxes deemed for about 17% of cases [73]. Nigh in all reported camel rabies cases in Sudan, dogs were the source of infection [eighteen, 62, 71, 74]. The same finding was reported in other African likewise equally Asian countries, Niger [69], Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Pakistan [68], Cathay [8] Saudi arabia [15].

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9. Rabies in pigs

9.1 Epidemiology

Sus scrofa rabies is not commonly reported; information about rabies in pigs is scarce. Tasiame et al. (2016) described an outbreak of canis familiaris-originated grunter rabies in a herd of 23 pigs in Ghana with 13% mortality. In China, the start written report for rabies cases in pigs was documented [7]. In China during 2011, an outbreak of pig rabies resulted in xiv deaths was reported [76]. In the U.s., DuVernoy et al. [77], was the kickoff to describe the clinical picture show of a wild animal'due south originated pig rabies. During 2004–2018 in Red china, it was noticed that pigs were the to the lowest degree rabies-affected species (ane.four%) compared to sheep, cattle, camels, and foxes [46]. In Brazil, Pessoa et al. (2011) reported the occurrence of sus scrofa rabies presented with neurological signs; it was attacked by a bat; there are several reports of detection of rabies virus in swine in Brazil. Preethi et al. (2020) reported the occurrence of pig rabies for the first fourth dimension in Southward India; three pigs in a herd of 25 pigs were attacked by a stray canis familiaris. Osiyemi et al. [78] reported rabies cases in pigs in Nigeria.

9.2 Clinical signs

Observed clinical signs in pigs are anorexia, hyperexcitation, constipation, twitching of the head, and foaming [79]. Jiang et al. (2008) described clinical signs of rabies in pigs, the furious form was seen in well-nigh all infected pigs, and it included hyperexcitation, roaring, and attacks on other pigs. In Bharat, clinical signs in rabid pigs were aggressiveness, inability to stand up with violent grunting, paralysis, lateral recumbency, convulsions, rapid chewing, head twitching, hyperexcitation, and profuse salivation, change in phonation. Out of 25 pigs, mortality was 12% [5]. In the USA, rabies clinical signs that appeared in pigs were fever, restlessness, salivation, aggression, anorexia, caput rubbing, depression, vocalization, and progressive paralysis (DuVernoy et al., 2008). In Brazil, two squealer rabies cases were reported: one with flaccid paralysis of the pelvic limbs; the other showed nervous signs, anorexia, and paresis, then pelvic limbs and tail paralysis. Generally, observed clinical signs were sectional of the paralytic form [31].

nine.3 Rabies manual in pigs

Like other species, the manual of rabies in pigs is mainly through dog bites and wild fauna, especially in Latin America. In Brazil, Pessoa et al. (2011) reported the occurrence of bat-originated sus scrofa rabies. In the Us, DuVernoy et al. (2008) reported pig rabies acquired by wildlife. In People's republic of china, the first report for rabies cases in pigs was associated with canis familiaris seize with teeth [vii]. In China during 2011, an outbreak of pig rabies was reported to be dog originated [76]. Tasiame et al. (2016) described an outbreak of domestic dog-originated pig rabies in Ghana.

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Acknowledgments

We are deeply indebted to Dr. Shamsaldeen Ibrahim Saeed for nicely cartoon the illustrations (Figures 1 and ii).

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Written By

Abdelmalik I. Khalafalla and Yahia H. Ali

Submitted: March 22nd, 2021 Reviewed: May tertiary, 2021 Published: June ninth, 2021

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution iii.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in whatsoever medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Source: https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/77118

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